Sanskrit Notes

These pages are a collection of my notes, my translations, and other useful things I have collected as I learn Sanskrit. Click on the three lines on the top left (next to the paintbrush icon) to navigate to specific chapters.

1. Sandhi
2. लकार
3. शब्द रुप
4. Resources

Translations

1. Exercises from Samskrta-Subodhini: A Sanskrit Primer" by Madhav Deshpande
2. Translations of lessons in संस्कृतप्रथमादर्शः Reader - I

Sandhi

ToC

Notes from Deshpande

1. Anusvāra Sandhi Rules
2. Visarga Sandhi Rules
3. Word-internal Sandhi rule: Change of न् to ण्
4. Vowel Sandhi
5. Consonant Sandhi Rules

Notes from other sources

Notes from Deshpande

Anusvāra Sandhi Rules

अनुस्वार

Final म् when followed by a consonant is changed to anusvāra. Example: रामम् वदति -> रामं वदति

The change does not happen if म् is followed by a vowel or is at the end of a sentence. In that case it has to remain as म्.

Optionally an anusvāra is further changes to a nasal consonant, which is homorganic with the following consonant. Change of anusvāra before य् व् and ल् is less common.

रामम् करोति -> रामं करोति -> रामङ्करोति

रामम् च -> रामं च -> रामञ्च

रामम् टीका -> रामं टीका -> रामण्टीका

रामम् तत्र -> रामं तत्र -> रामन्तत्र

रामम् पश्यति -> रामं पश्यति -> रामम्पश्यति

रामम् यत्र -> रामं यत्र -> रामय्ँयत्र

रामम् वा -> रामं वा -> रामव्ँवा

रामम् लता -> रामं लता -> रामल्ँलता

Visarga Sandhi Rules

1) The final visarga remains unchanged before क् ख् प् फ् E.g. रामः पतति।

2) The final visarga changes to a sibilant homorganic with the following unvoiced consonants marginally before श् ष् and स्.

A visarga becomes श् before च्, छ्, and श् - जनाः च -> जनाश्च

A visarga becomes ष् before ट्, ठ्, and ष् - जनाः टीकाम् -> जनाष्टीकाम्

A visarga becomes स् before त्, थ्, and स् - रामः तत्र -> रामस्तत्र

3) A visarga when preceded by आ and followed by a voiced consonant or vowel is dropped:

बालाः धावन्ति -> बाला धावन्ति।

जनाः अभितः -> जना अभितः।

4) When a विसर्ग is preceded by अ and followed by a voiced consonant, the sequence अः is changed to ओ :-

पुत्रः धावति -> पुत्रो धावति।

जनः वसति -> जनो वसति।

5) When preceded by अ and followed by any vowel except अ, the विसर्ग is dropped:

पुत्रः उभयतः -> पुत्र उभयतः।

धावतः इह -> धावत इह।

6) When a visarga is preceded by अ and followed by अ, अः is changed to ओ while the following अ is elided. This lost अ is indicated by the unpronounced sign ऽ called Avagraha

धावतः अश्वौ -> धावतोऽश्वौ।

पुत्रः अत्र -> पुत्रोऽत्र।

7) An exception to the visarga sandhi

The visarga after सः and एषः followed by a consonant does not follow any of the above sandhi-rules, but can be dropped optionally. Before vowels, it follows the normal sandhi rules:

सः तत्र -> स तत्र।

एषः गच्छति -> एष गच्छति।

सः अत्र -> सोऽत्र।

सः उभयतः -> स उभयतः।

एषः च -> एष च।

8) A visarga changes to र् if it is preceded by any vowel except अ or आ, and followed by a vowel or a voiced consonant:

मुनिः अत्र -> मुनिरत्र

मुनिः गच्छति -> मुनिर्गच्छति

तरोः + इति -> तरोरिति

तरोः + धावति -> तरोर्धावति

Word internal Sandhi rule

Change of न् to ण्

वन is a neuter gender word. It's प्रथमा विभक्ति बहुवचन form is वनानि. But for शरीर the equivalent form is शरीराणि. The change of न् to ण् is governed by this rule:

Dental न् changes to retroflex ण् if within the same word न् is preceded by र्, ऋ, or ष्, and is later followed either by a vowel or by व्, न्, म्, or य्. This applies despite the intervention of the following sounds: vowels, semi-vowels (except ल), क-series, प-series, and anusvara. If any other sounds intervene, the rule does not apply. Examples:

शरीरानि -> शरीराणि

नरानाम् -> नराणाम्

नृपानाम् -> नृपाणाम्

नरान् -> no change since न् is the word-final

अर्जुनेन -> no change since ज् intervenes

Vowel Sandhi

A) Lengthening of similar simple vowels:

सावर्णदीर्घसन्धिः

a) अ or आ + अ or आ -> आ

Examples: राम + अत्र -> रामात्र; माला + आकाशे -> मालाकाशे

b) इ or ई + इ or ई -> ई

Examples: उपरि + इति -> उपरीति; नदी + इति -> नदीति

c) उ or ऊ + उ or ऊ -> ऊ

Examples: गच्छतु + उपरि -> गच्छतूपरि; गच्छतु + ऊर्मिः -> गच्छतूर्मिः

d) ऋ or ॠ + ऋ or ॠ -> ॠ

Examples (rare): पितृ + ऋषिः -> पितॄषिः ; पितृ + ॠकारः -> पितॄकारः

B) Simple vowels folowed by dissimilar vowels:

यण् सन्धिः - इकोयणचि

a) इ or ई -> य् if followed by any other vowel.

Examples: उपरि + अश्वः -> उपर्यश्वः ; नदी + एव -> नद्येव

b) उ or ऊ -> व् if followed by any other vowel.

Example: धावतु + अत्र -> धावत्वत्र

c) ऋ or ॠ -> र् if followed by any other vowel

Example: पितृ + अत्र -> पित्रत्र

C) Formation of diphthongs:

गुणसन्धिः - a and b

वृद्धिसन्धिः - c and d

a) अ or आ + इ or ई -> ए

Examples: च + इति -> चेति   मुनिना + इह -> मुनिनेह

b) अ or आ + उ or ऊ -> ओ

Examples: अत्र + उपरि -> अत्रोपरि   मुनिना + उपरि -> मुनिनोपरि

c) अ or आ + ए or ऐ -> ऐ

Examples: च + एव -> चैव   धेन्वा + एतद् -> धेन्वैतद्

d) अ or आ + ओ or औ -> औ

Examples: च + ओदनम् -> चौदनम्   पिबाम + औषधम् -> पिबामौषधम्

D) Exceptions

Long ई, ऊ, and ए do not change if they occur at the end of dual forms of nouns or verbs. Similarly the final vowels of interjections like आ, हे and अहो remain unchanged.

Examples: मुनी + अत्र -> मुनी अत्र ; धेनू + इति -> धेनू इति; माले अत्र -> माले अत्र

Vowel sandhi rules (continued)

a.1 and b.1 are पूर्वरूपसन्धिः

a.2, b.2, c, d below are यान्तवान्तादेशसन्धिः as per Panini sutra एचोऽयवायावः

a.1) ए + अ = ए

Examples: लभते अत्र -> लभतेऽत्र   वने अपि -> वनेऽपि

a.2) ए -> अय् before any vowel other than अ

Examples: वने इः -> वनयिह   देवे इति -> देवयिति

b.1) ओ + अ -> ओ

Examples: प्रभो + अधुना -> प्रभोऽधुना   गुरो + अत्र -> गोरोऽत्र

b.2) ओ -> अव् before any vowel other than अ

Examples: गुरो + इति -> गुरविति   शिशो + इति -> शिशविति

c) ऐ -> आय्, before any vowel

Examples: तस्मै + इति -> तस्मायिति   नद्यै + इति -> नद्यायिति

d) औ -> आव्, before any vowel

Examples: कवौ + इह -> कवाविह   गुरौ + इति -> गुराविति

Note: When words ending in ओ or औ are combined with यादिप्रत्ययः then also ओ/औ will change to अव्/आव्.

Examples:

गो + यम् = ग् + अव् + यम् = गव्यम्

नौ + यम् = न् + आव् + यम् = नाव्यम्

e) य् and व् resulting from changes of ए, ओ, ऐ, and औ may be optionally elided, and in the case of such elision of य् and व्, no further sandhi occurs. Examples:

वने + इह -> वनयिह or वन इह

गुरो + इति -> गुरविति or गुर इति

तस्मै + इति -> तस्मायिति or तस्मा इति

कवौ + इति -> कवाविति or कवा इति

Due to various sandhi rules, occasionally identical sequences result from different original sequences, and only the larger sentential context can help identify the originals. Compare and contrast the following:

(बालाः इह) बाला इह तिष्ठन्ति। "The boys stand here."

(बालौ इह) बाला इह तिष्ठतः। "Two boys stand here."

(बाला इह) बाला इह तिष्ठति। "A girl stands here."

Final is the last letter of the first word and initial is the first letter of the second word

Consonant Sandhi Rules

1. unvoiced stop -> voiced stop, before a voiced consonant or a vowel

Examples:

वृक्षात् + अपतत् = वृक्षादपतत्

ग्रामात् + वनम् = ग्रामाद्वनम्

2. Voiced stop -> unvoiced stop, before a unvoiced consonant

Examples:

तद् + कमलम् = तत्कमलम्

एतद् + सर्वदा = एतत्सर्वदा

3. Initial श -> छ, optionally if preceded by a dental stop or nasal.

Examples:

तत् + शंसति = तच्छंसति

तान् + शंसति = ताञ्छंसति

Optionally: तच्शंसति and ताञ्शंसति (rare in texts).

4. Dental Consonant -> corresponding retroflex Consonant, before a retroflex Consonant.

Examples:

तत् + टीका = तट्टीका

तद् + डमरुः = तड्डमरुः

(देवः = ) देवस् + टीका -> देवष्टीका

5. Dental Consonant -> corresponding palatal Consonant, before a palatal consonant

Examples:

ग्रामात् + च = ग्रामाच्च

ग्रामात् + जायते = ग्रामाज्जायते

(देवः = ) देवस् + च = देवश्च

6. Dental stop -> ल् before ल्.

Examples:

तद् + लभते = तल्लभते

ग्रामात् + लोकः = ग्रामाल्लोकः

7. Dental न् -> ल्ँ before ल्

Examples:

तान् + लभते = ताल्ँलभते

देवान् + लोकः = देवाल्ँलोकः

8. Stop -> corresponding nasal, before nasal, optionally

Examples:

तद् + न = तन्न

वाक् + मम = वाङ्मम

तद् + मित्रम् = तन्मित्रम्

Optionally: तद्न, वाग्मम, and तद्मित्रम् (rare in texts)

9. ह् after a stop is replaced by the corresponding voiced aspirated stop, optionally:

Examples:

तद् + हि = तद्धि

वाक् + हि = वाग्घि

Optionally तद्हि and वाग्हि (rare in texts).

10. Final ङ्, ण्, and न् are doubled, after a short vowel and before any vowel

Examples:

अपतन् + इह = अपतन्निह

अगच्छन् + आकाशम् = अगच्छन्नाकाशम्

11. Final न्, before an unvoiced dental, palatal, or retroflex stop, is replaced by an anusvara plus a sibilant homorganic with the stop. Examples:

देवान् + तत्र = देवांस्तत्र

देवान् + च = देवांश्च

देवान् + टीका = देवांष्टीका

12. Final र्, original or derived from a visarga, is deleted, before an initial र्, and the previous simple vowel is lengthened. Examples:

पुनर् + सामः = पुना रामः

मतिः + रामः = मती रामः

शिशुः + रामः = शिशू रामः

13. If a word ending in a short vowel is followed by छ, a च् is inserted between the two. This insertion is optional after a long vowel. Examples:

कवि + छात्रः = कविच्छात्रः

लक्षमी + छाया = लक्ष्मीच्छाया or लक्ष्मीछाया

Notes from other sources

Maheshvara Sutra

महेश्वर सूत्राणि

अइउण् । ऋऌक् । एओङ् । ऐऔच् ।

हयवरट् । लण् । ञमङणनम् ।

झभञ् । घढधष् । जबगडदश् ।

खफछठथचटतव् । कपय् ।

शषसर् । हल् ।

Memorize the above sutras. They are useful in learning Sandhi.

१. यण् सन्धिः - इकोयणचि

इकोयणचि ६.१.७७ - इकः स्थाने यण् स्यादचि संहितायां विषये। इको यण् स्यादसवर्णेऽचि परे इति सूत्रस्य फलितोऽर्थः इति ज्ञेयम्।

The Panini sutra for यण्सन्धिः is इकोयणचि. The इक्, यण् and अच् terms in this sutra refer to portions of the Maheshvara sutra highlighted in red below.

अइउण् । ऋऌक्। - इक्

हयवरट् । लण् । - यण्

अइउण् । ऋऌक् । एओङ् । ऐऔच् । - अच्

इक् refers to vowels इ ई उ ऊ ऋ ॠ लृ

यण् refers to vowels य व र ल

अच् refers to all vowels अ आ इ ई उ ऊ ऋ लृ ए ऐ ओ औ

This sutra says that the vowels इ/ई, उ/ऊ, ऋ/ॠ and लृ if followed by any vowel of different type (i.e. different from this vowel असवर्णस्वरः) it must be (आदेशः) replaced (correspondingly) by य्, व्, र्, or ल्.

Examples:

प्रति + एकम् = प्रत् + य् + एकम् = प्रत्येकम्        नदी + अत्र = नद् + य् + अत्र = नद्यत्र

मनु + अन्तरम् = मन् + व् + अन्तरम् = मन्वन्तरम्        वधू + आगमनम् = वध् + व् + आगमनम् = वध्वागमनम्

पितृ + इच्छा = पित् + र् + इच्छा = पित्रिच्छा

घस्लृ + आदेशः = घस् + ल् + आदेशः = घस्लादेशः (uncommon)

२. यान्तवान्तादेशसन्धिः

एचोऽयवायावः - ६.१.७८ एचः क्रमाद् अय् अव् आय् आव् एते स्युरचि।

यान्तौ वान्तौ च = अय् आय् अव् आव्

If ए ऐ ओ औ are followed by स्वाराः it changes as shown in the above table.

Examples:

हरे + ए = हर् + अय् + ए = हरये     हरे + आगच्छ = हर् + अय् + आगच्छ = हरयागच्छ

नै + अकः = न् + आय् + अकः = नायकः     तस्यै + इदम् = तस्य् + आय् + इदम् = तस्यायिदम्

विष्णो + ए = विष्ण् + अव् + ए = विषणवे     गुरो + आदिश = गुर् + अ्व + आदिश = गुरावादिश

पौ + अकः = प् + आव् + अकः = पावकः

बालकौ + आगतौ = बालक् + आव् + आगतौ = बालकावागतौ

फले + इच्छा = फलयिच्छा / फल इच्छा

कटे + उपवेशनम् = कटयुपवेशनम् / कट उपवेशनम्

Note from teacher: There is another sutra that provides an exception to एचोऽयवायावः. As per सूत्र "एङः पदान्तादति" the एङ् (ए ओ) at the end of the word followed by अत् (ह्रस्व अ) the both will get common replacement of पूर्वरूप (ए, ओ)

२.२. यान्तवान्तादेशसन्धिः

यकारादिप्रत्यये परे ओ औ इत्येतयोः स्थाने क्रमाद् अव् आव् एतौ आदेशौ भवतः।

When a यकार प्रत्यय is added to words ending in ओ or औ then it changes as below

ओ/औ + यादिप्रत्ययः -

Examples:

गो + यम् = ग् + अव् + यम् = गव्यम्

नौ + यम् = न् + अव् + यम् = नव्यम्

इदमवधेयम् - स्वरसन्धिषु यण्सन्धौ यान्तवान्तादेशसन्धौ च एकस्य पूर्वस्थितस्य वर्णस्य आदेशौ भवति। इदं सन्धिद्वयं विहाय अन्यत्र स्वरसन्धिषु पूर्वपरयोः स्थाने एकादेशो भवति।

Know this: Among swara sandhis यणसन्धि and यान्तवान्तादेशसन्धि one previous sound (letter) is replaced. Other than these two sandhis other swara sandhis the last letter (of the first word) and the first letter (of the second woord) are replaced with the same change.

How do we decide which Panini sutra overrides another one?

First we have to look for the सूत्र number. If सूत्रs in first 7 अध्यायs and the 1st quarter of 8th अध्याय then first rule is more powerful than later on. In last 3 quarters of 8th अध्याय then it is reverse. Later is powerful than previous.

In case of one sutra in सपादसप्ताध्यायी (first 7 chapters and 1st quarter of 8th) and another in त्रिपादी (last 3 quarters of 8th अध्यायी) then सपादसप्ताध्यायी is powerful.

३. गुणसन्धिः

गुणः = ए ओ अर् अल्

१.१.२. अदेङ्गुणः - अत् एङ् च गुणसंज्ञः स्यात्।

६.१.८७. आद् गुणः - अवर्णादचि परे पूर्वपरयोरेको गुणः आदेशः स्यात्संहितायाम्। अवर्णादिकि परे इति सूत्रस्य फलितोऽर्थः इति ज्ञेयम्।

देव + इन्द्रः = देव् + ए + न्द्रः = देवेन्द्रः

गण + ईशः = गण् + ए + शः = गणेशः

महा + इन्द्रः = मह् + ए + न्द्रः = महेन्द्रः

महा + ईशः = मह + ए + शः = महेशः

सूर्य + उदयः = सूर्य् + ओ + दयः = सूर्योदयः

एक + ऊनविंशतिः = एक् + ओ + नविंशतिः = एकोनविंशतिः

महा + उत्सवः = मह + ओ + त्सवः = महोत्सवः

महा + ऊर्मिः = मह + ओ + र्मिः = महोर्मिः

सप्त + ऋषिः = सप्त् + अर् + षयः = सप्तर्षयः

महा + ऋषिः = मह + अर् + षिः = महर्षिः

तव + ऌकारः = तव् + अल् + कारः = तवल्कारः

महा + ऌकारः = मह् + अल् + कारः = महल्कारः

वृद्धिसन्धिः

सुभाषितम्

प्राणस्य बीजं सकलस्य वायुर्ध्यानं हरेः सर्वरुजां च जायः।

आहारशुद्ध्या खल दीर्घमायुः बीजं विकारस्य धियो नु मायुः॥

- नागराजस्य (12 April 2022 सुधर्मा)

The basic cause of life of every living being is air. Meditation on Lord Hari is the best medication for all diseased. Long life is attained by consuming clean food. The cause of aberration of intellect is Pitta (bile).

Tenses and Moods - लकार

Lakaras convey the sense of time (tense) and sentiment (भाव). They are split into two groups - (1) कालवाचकाः (tense) and (2) भाववाचकाः (mood)

There are ten lakaras in Sanskrit.

1. लट् लकार - Present tense
2. लङ् लकार - Past tense (past action but not within a day; अनद्यतनभूतकालः)
3. लिट् लकार - Past tense (ancient past, परोक्षभूतकालः)
4. लुङ लकार - Past tense (simple past)
5. लिङ् लकार - Potential/Optative mood
6. लोट् लकार - Imperative mood
7. लुट् लकार - Future tense (अनद्यतनभविष्यतकाल)
8. लृट् लकार - Future tense (सामान्यभविष्यत्काल, simple future)
9. लृङ् लकार - क्रियातिपत्ति (non-realization of an action)
10. लेट् लकार - both tense and mood

Six lakaras are कालवाचकाः. The present tense is called लट् लकार. In Sanskrit there are 3 kinds of past and 2 kinds of future tense. Note: Tenses apply to verbs only.

लिट् लङ् and लुङ् are past tense. लुट् and लृट् are used for future tense.

The lakaras लोट्, लिङ् and लृङ् are used to represent moods. These three are भाववाचकाः. लोट् and लिङ् represent the moods/sentiments like - आज्ञा (order), प्रार्थना (request), इच्छा (wish). The लृङ् लकार is used to express non-realization of an action.

लेट् लकारः is both कालवाचकः and भाववाचकः

Here is a sloka to remember all the लकार:

लट् वर्तमाने लेट् वेदे भूते लुङ् लङ् लिटस्तथा।

विद्याशीषोस्तु लिङ् लोटौ लुट् लृट् लृङ् च भविष्यति।।

References

1. Verbs in Sanskrit - Overview of the 10 Lakaaras by Neelesh Bodas
2. Verbs in Sanskrit - Overview of the 10 Dhaatu Ganas by Neelesh Bodas

Examples

Here are examples with meaning for the same धातु in all लकार. All examples are in प्रथम पुरुष एकवचन

The above three are the commonly used in contemporary Sanskrit.

Other forms that convey time:

The लिट् and लुङ् forms are also for past tense. लिट् is the ancient past and is frequently encountered in texts like Ramayana and Mahabharata

लिट् - सः पपाठ - He read (in an ancient time)

लुङ् (past) - अपाठीत

Future also has an additional form: लुट् (future) - पठिता

There are three forms that convey mood instead of time.

पठतु - लोट्

पठेत् - लिङ्

अपठिष्यत - लृङ्

One special form only occurs in the Vedas

लेट - पठाति This form is encountered only in the Vedas.

Present tense - वर्तमान काल

Past tense - भूत काल

All three past tenses are together are called भूत काल.

Past action that ended before today: Any past action that ended before today but could have been witnessed by the speaker/listener (अनद्यतन भूत). This past is called लङ् लकार. Example: He read. = सः अपठत्।

Strictly in a grammatical sense अनद्यतन भूत refers to events in the past that are not recent but not ancient. अद्यतन is a 24 hour period - sunrise to sunrise, or midnight to mid-night, or end of day to end of next day. So अनद्यतन भूत are events that happened in the past but not during the अद्यतन.

However, in present day usage लङ् लकार is used generally as past tense.

Distant/ancient past: Events in the distant past that have not been witnessed by the speaker/listener (परोक्ष भूत) are called लिट् लकार. Usually लिट् लकार is encountered in old treatises and texts like Ramayana and Mahabharata. In those texts लङ् लकार is not prominent. Example:

There was a king named Dasharatha.

दशरथः नाम राजा बभूव।

Simple past: Simple past (सामान्य भूत), called लुङ् लकार, is used for events that happend in the past.

परोक्षः = अक्ष्ण परः - That which is beyond our visibility. i.e. not seen by the speaker but have heard about it.

लुङ् and लिट् लकार is very common in epics like Ramayana, Mahabharatha, Devi Bhagavatam etc. In that class of poetry and prose लङ् लकार is not usually found.

Example of लङ् लकार:

सः ह्यः मन्दिरम् अगच्छत्। - Correct

सः अद्य प्रातः मन्दिरम् अगच्छत्। - Incorrect from a grammer point of view. But has become generally accepted in spoken Sanskrit. The correct version is सः अद्य प्रातः मन्दितम् अगमत्।

अगमत् is लुङ् लकार.

लिट् लकार example: रामः वनं जगाम।

Note that लिट् can also be used for events that happened yesterday or day before that you did not see. Many people say that लिट् लकार is used for indicating things in the very past but that is not correct. Anything that you did not see you should use लिट् लकार for indicating it.

More examples:

सः वनम् जगाम।

भवान् किं चकार?

छात्रः पाठम् पपाठ।

प्रातः सूर्योदयः बभूव।

सा उत्तरम् उवाद।

किं कविः काव्यम् लिलेख?

लङ् लकार - अनद्यतन भूत (past imperfect tense)

Events that happened in the past and prior to one day. This is also referred to as imperfect past and used for events witnessed by the speaker.

लिट् लकार - परोक्ष भूत

The most commonly encountered usage of लिट् लकार will be प्रथम एकवचन and प्रथम बहुवचन.

लुङ् लकार - सामान्य भूत (simple past tense)

सः वनम् अगमत्।

भवान् किम् अकर्षीत्?

छात्रः पाठम् अपाठीत्।

प्रातः सूर्योदयः अभूत्।

सा उत्तरम् अवादीत्।

किं कविः काव्यम् अलेखीत्?

Future Tense - भविष्यत्काल

There are two types of future tense in Sanskrit - लृट्लकारः (सामान्यभविष्यत्कालम्) and लुट्लकारः (अनद्यतनभविष्यत्कालम्).

अनद्यतन = न अद्यतन (not now).

अनद्यतनभविष्यत्काल are actions that will happen tomorrow or after (day after, next month etc.). If you say "I am going to play cricket in the evening.", that is not अनद्यतन.

Example of लुट् लकारः (अनद्यतनभविष्यत्कालः): रामः श्वः वनं गन्ता।

From a grammer point of view this sentence is incorrect: रामः श्वः वनं गमिष्यति।

रामः अद्य रात्रौ वनं गमिष्यति। This is correct because the action is happening in the future but today. सामान्यभविष्यत्कालः is used for cases where it is not अनद्यतन or you don't know.

This sentence is correct: रामः वनं गमिष्यति।

If there is a reference to when the action is going to happen and that is tomorrow or later then you must use लुट्लकार.

However, in today's spoken Sanskrit the use of लुट्लकार is almost extinct. लृट् लकार is used universally for future tense.

प्रयोगशरणाः व्य्याकरणाः। Grammer cannot dicatate the language, the language dictates the grammer. While the grammer recommends using लुट् लकार for events happening after today in practice लृट् लकार is used and accepted in speech and prose.

लृट् लकार:

लुट्लकारः उदाहरणानि

रामः वनं श्वः गन्ता।

भवान अग्रिममासे गीतां पठिता वा?

अहम् परश्वः परीक्षां लेखितास्मि।

वयम् मङ्लवासरे मिलित्वा यज्ञं कर्तास्मः।

त्वम् अग्रिमवर्षे कुत्र क्रीडितासि?

युयम् श्वः परश्वः वा चलचित्रम् द्रष्टास्थ।

भाववाचक लकारः - Moods

Imperative mood - लोट् लकार

The imperative mood is used to express a command, advice, a wish. a request etc. A negative command or prohibition is expressed by using मा followed by the imperative form. Example: मा पिबतु (You do not drink).

The -तात् forms of प्रथम & मध्यम पुरुष are used in expressing a blessing. Example: सुखं भवतात् - Let there be happiness.

Examples:

• सः पठतु। - वह पढे।
• आज्ञा (order) – त्वं गृहं गच्छ। (तुम घर जाओ)
• प्रार्थना (request) – भवान मम गृहं आगच्छतु। (आप मेरे घर मे आयें।)
• अनुमति (permission) – अहं कुत्र गच्छानि? (मै कहाँ जाऊँ?)
• आशीर्वाद (blessing) – त्वं चिरं जीव। (तुम बहुत समय तक जियो।)

Notes from

More examples

आज्ञा :- शिक्षकः छात्रम् आज्ञापयति - एतत् पुस्तकं पठ।

प्रश्नः :- छात्रः पृच्छति - किम् अहम् व्याकरणम् पठानि?

प्रार्थना :- पिता आवार्यं वदति - मम पुत्रं पाठयतु भवान्।

आमन्त्रणम् :- रामः वदति - श्वः भवान् मम गृहम् आगच्छतु।

पद्धतिः (process) :- देहलीनगरं अनेन मार्गेण गच्छतु।

आशीर्वादः :- विजयी भव।

Potential/Optative mood - लिङ् लकार

Optative mode is used to indicate wish, advice, a request, a possibility, or the near future. It is also called potential mood. It is also used for conditional clauses, e.g. “If he would go…”. In Sanskrit Optative mood is called लिङ् लकारः (विधिलिङ्)

सः पठेत्। (विधिलिङ्)

उसे पडना चाहिए।

विधिनिमन्त्रणामन्त्रणाधीष्टसंप्रश्रप्रार्थनेषु लिङ् – विधि (चाहिए), निमन्त्रण, आदेश, विधान, उपदेश, प्रश्र तथा प्रार्थना आदि अर्थों का बोध कराने के लिये विधि लिङ् लाकार का प्रयोग किया जाता है। जैसे –

• विधि – सत्यं ब्रूयात। (सत्य बोलना चाहिये) प्रियं ब्रूयात्। (प्रिय बोलना चाहिये)
• निमन्त्रण – भवान् अद्य अत्र भक्षयेत्। (आप आज यहाँ भोजन करें)
• आदेश – भृत्यः क्षेत्रे गच्छेत्। (नौकर खेत पर जाये।)
• प्रश्र – त्वं किम कुर्याः? (तुमहे क्या करना चाहिये?)
• इच्छा – यूयं सुखि भवेत्। (तुम खुश रहो।)

Notes from

There are two types of लिङ्लकार - विधिलिङ् and आशीर्लिङ्.

विधिलिङ्लकार can be used in every situation a लोट् लकार can be used. The two are completely interchangeable.

आशीर्लिङ् is used for अप्राप्यस्य इच्छा - something you want but cannot have easily. Examples:

• अहम् राष्ट्रपतिः भूयासम् (I wish to be the President)
• मम शत्रुः म्रियात् (I wish for my enemy to die.)
• विष्णुः मह्यम् आशीषः देयात्
• सा मया सह विवाहं क्रियात्
• अहम् भगवद्गीता स्मर्यासम्

लृङ् लकारः - क्रियातिपत्तिः

Example: If this happens then that will happen

१. यदि वर्षा अभविष्यत्, तर्हि सस्यानि अवर्धिष्यन्त।

If there is rain then the crops will have flourished.

२. यदि कृष्णः गीतां न अवदिष्यत् तर्हि अर्जुनः न अयोत्स्यत।

If Krishna had not told the Geetha, Arjuna would not have fought the battle.

३. यदि कैकयी वरं न अप्राक्षीत् तर्हि रामः वनं न अगमिष्यत्।

If Kaikeyi had not got the boon, then Rama would not have gone to the forest.

४. अहम् अध्ययनम् अकरिष्यम् चेत् परीक्षाम् अपि अलेखिष्यम्।

If I would have studied then I will would have written the exam.

OR

If I will study then I will write the exam.

Both above meanings are correct. The take away is that लृङ् is not referring to past, present or future. It refers to क्रियातिपत्ति (non-realization of an action).

५. अभिमन्युः चक्रव्यूहं सम्यक् अज्ञास्यत् वेत् सः कौरवेभ्यः न पराजेष्यत।

Note: It is not that only लृङ् लकार should be used with यदि-तर्हि. The लृङ् लकार is for situations where you say if something that did not happen or is difficult to happen happened then blah-blah. Generally when using लृङ् लकार the sentence will have यदि-तर्हि and चेत्.

लेट् लकारः

लेट् लकारः from 55:31

लेट् लकारः केवलं वेदेषु प्रयुज्यते। लौकिकसंस्कृते अस्य प्रयोगः न भवति।

This lakara cannot be used in any of your sentences. This lakara is used only in the Vedas. The forms used in the Vedas are the only examples of लेट् लकार. You cannot create your own examples.

वेदेषु अयं लकारः भिन्नेषु अर्थेषु प्रयुज्यते - वर्तमानकालः, आज्ञा, विधिः आदयः। Sometimes as कालवाचक and sometimes as भाववाचक.

उदाहरणानि -

१. नेता इन्द्रो नेषत्।

नेता - leader इन्द्रो - Indra नेषत् - to sprinkle water

नेषत् is लेट् लाकारः because it cannot be derived from the other 9 lakaras.

२. विद्युत् पताति।

विद्युत् - lightning पताति - falls (पतति)

So in लट् लकार we say विद्युत् पतति but in लेट् we say विद्युत् पताति

३. प्रजापतिः उदधिं च्यावयाति।

च्यावयाति - to force to move

In classical Sanskrit this will be प्रजापतिः उदधिं च्यावयति

Key take away: The Panini grammer applies to classical Sanskrit. The grammer of the Vedas including लेट् लकारः cannnot be derived using Panini grammer. To understand the meaning we have to ask Veda experts.

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शब्द रुप

This is a list of commonly used and some uncommon शब्द रुप

Masculine (पुंल्लिङ्गः) nouns

Note: All अकारान्तः पुंल्लिङ्गः शब्दाः will be like राम शब्दः

Note: Most इकारान्तः पुंल्लिङ्गः शब्दाः will be like हरि. When पति occurs at the end of compounds like नरपति it behaves in a normal fashion and follows the pattern like हरि. The feminine form of पति is पत्नी and it follows the same form as नदी.

There are a few masculine words which end in आ, ई, and ऊ. These are also irregular declinations.

The word क्रोष्टु (jackal) is irregular in that several of its forms show the base क्रोष्टृ.

There are no masculine nouns ending in ए, but there are ones ending in ओ, औ, and ऐ (see रै above)

Feminine (स्त्रीलिङ्गः) nouns

The feminine paradigm जरा "old age" is mixed with alternating forms of जरस्. The same mixture is carried into the masculine paradigms of निर्जर "without old age, gods" (above).

While नदी represents the normal paradigm for feminine nours in ई, several feminine nominals in ई differ from this paradigm. Words like लक्ष्मी (wealth) तरी (boat), तन्त्री (lute) are declined like नदी, except that their nominative singular ends in Visarga i.e. लक्ष्मीः, तरीः, and तन्त्रीः. This class includes monosyllabic words धी (intellect), श्री (wealth), भी (fear) and ह्री (shame). These monosyllabic words also differ in some other aspects (see table below, compare with नदी शब्द रूप). The word स्त्री (woman) has its peculiar forms.

Neuter (नपुंसकलिङ्गः) nouns

Note: Most इकारान्तः नपुंसकलिङ्गः शब्दाः will be similar to शुचिशब्दः. The major exceptions are अक्षि, सक्थि, अस्थि which are similar to दधि शब्दः. Another exception is वारि which has its own form.

सर्वनामशब्दाः (Pronouns)

Present active participles

Though these are verbs they are declined as nouns. For example, गच्छन् रामः means the Rama who is going. So in a sentence, structurally, they behave like adjectives. The meaning of the previous sentence is "The going Rama". This type of expression is not present in English but it is in Sanskrit.

Active verbs form their present active participles with the affix अत्. A simple way to form the present active participle stem is to replace the affix अन्ति in the present 3rd pl by the affix अत्.

गच्छन्ति -> गच्छत्

दीव्यन्ति -> दीव्यत्

तुदन्ति -> तुदत्

चोरयन्ति -> चोरयत्

Since these words are like adjectives/nouns they are declined like nouns.

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धातु रुप

लट् लकार

Grammer

Grammer terms

अक्षरम् - श्रवणेन्द्रियग्राह्यम् अक्षरम् । तच्च कण्ठताल्वाद्यभिघातेन अभिव्यज्जते। अक्षरस्यैव नामान्तरं ’वर्णः’ इति। That which can be perceived by the faculty of hearing is अक्षरम्. It is classified/separated based on articulation into तच्च, कण्ठ, तालु etc.

वर्णः - Same as अक्षरम्

वर्णः - sounds (phenomes?)

वाक्यम् - sentence

पदम् - word

सन्धिः - when two वर्णः are joined/combined

समासम् - when two पदम् are joined/combined

In Sanskrit grammar there is an entire branch devoted to the study of the joining of two वर्णः and that is called सन्धिः. Example: नमस्ते, कोपि etc

Similarly there is a branch devoted to the study of the joining of two पदम् called समासम्. Example: देवालय, वृक्षमूलम, जगत्पति, करपत्रम् etc

प्रातिपदिकम् - base word/root of (सुबन्तम्) nouns, adjectives and other non-verbs.

सुबन्तम् - nouns, adjectives and other non-verbs (नाम पदम्)

तिङन्तम् - verbs (क्रिया पदम)

धातुः - verb root

कृदन्तम् - This is a type of नाम पदम्. धातुः + कृत् प्रत्यय forms a new प्रातिपदिकम्. Examples of कृदन्तम् include पठितवान, पठितुम, रामः, सीता etc. Some of the नाम पदम् are कृदन्तम् and some are सुबन्तम्.

Example: Here is a sentence (वाक्यम्)

अहम् प्रातःकाले उत्तिष्ठामि।

अहम् - सुबन्तम्। प्रातिपदिकम् = अस्मद्

प्रातःकाले - सुबन्तम्। प्रातिपदिकम् = प्रातःकाल

उत्तिष्ठामि - तिङन्तम्। धातु?

Every प्रातिपदिकम् has a विभक्ति table. In a वाक्यम् only सुबन्त पदम् or तिङन्त पदम् can be used - प्रातिपदिकम् and धातु cannot be used. This is a Paniniya grammer rule.

Every word in Sanskrit has an underlying etymology or meaning. For example the word प्रातिपदिकम् is derived from प्रति and पद. प्रति means every and पद is word. So प्रातिपदिकम् is something related to every word.

सुबन्तम् is made of two words सुप् + अन्तम्. It means words ending in सुप्. Here सुप् refers to a collection of suffixes (suffix = प्रत्यय).

When a सुप् प्रत्यय is added to a प्रातिपदिकम् we get सुबन्त पदम् (i.e. word ending in सुप्). There are 21 सुप् प्रत्यय. Each entry in a विभक्ति table is the result of adding a सुप् प्रत्यय at the end of a प्रातिपदिकम्. Example, for the प्रातिपदिकम् called राम we have 21 सुबन्त पदम् - i.e. रामः, रामौ, रामाः, रामम्, रामौ, रामान्...etc.

How to add a सुप् प्रत्यय to a प्रातिपदिकम् and get a सुबन्त पदम् (नाम पदम्) is a branch of study in Sanskrit grammar.

तिङन्त पदम् (aka क्रिया पदम्) is a verb. These पदम् are formed by adding a तिङन्तम् to a धातु. For example, गम् धातु takes the forms गच्छति, गच्छतः, गच्छन्ति etc. Deriving the forms of क्रिया पदम् is a separate branch of Sanskrit grammar study.

Speaking of कृदन्त पदम - रम् is a धातु, if we add a प्रत्यय then we get राम as a new प्रातिपदिकम्. To this new प्रातिपदिकम् we can add a सुप् प्रत्यय to form a सुबन्त पदम्.

What is कारकम्?

Let us take a simple sentence. बालकः तस्य गृहे पुस्तकम् पठति। In this sentence: क्रिया पदम् = पठति. All others are नाम पदम्. In a sentence the क्रिया पदम् is the most important.

Note that व्याकरणम् is one shastra. There are other shastras like न्यायशास्त्र मीमांस शास्त्र etc which have a different concept for a वाक्यम्.

• कः पठति? बालकः
• किम् पठति? पुस्तकम्
• कुत्र पठति? गृहे
• कस्य गृहे? तस्य

These words that are answering the questions are कारक पदम् because they have a relationship with the क्रिया पदम्.

What is कारकम् ? क्रियान्वयि कारकम. क्रिया means action अन्वय means सम्बन्ध (relationship). क्रिया पदेन सह सम्बन्धम् करोति इति कारकम्।

What is the relationship of तस्य with पठति? It has a relationship with गृहे but none with पठति. So it is not a कारकम्.

New sentence: बालकः ग्रन्थालये स्यूतात् लेखकस्य पुस्तकम् हस्तेन मित्राय ददाति।

कः ददाति? बालकः

In the above sentence बालकः is कर्ता and its relationship with the क्रिया पदम् is कतृकारकम्.

किम् ददाति? पुस्तकम्

पुस्तकम् has relationship of कर्म with ददाति. So it is called कर्म कारकम्.

केन ददाति? हस्तेन - Relationship is करणम् - करण कारकम्

कस्मै ददाति? मित्राय - Relationship is सम्प्रदानम् - सम्प्रदान कारकम्

कस्मिन् ददाति? ग्रन्थालये - Relationship is अधिकरणम् - अधिकरण कारकम्

Some नाम पदम् in a sentence have different relationship to क्रिया पदम्. These are called कारकम्. To indicate that relationship we add different विभक्ति प्रत्यय to the प्रातिपदिकम् of that नाम पदम्.

How many काराक are there? Six (above)

Verbs

Words in Sanskrit can be either तिङ्न्त (verbs) or सुबन्त (nouns, pronouns, adjectives etc). Words (verbs and nouns) are formed by combining two groups of letters:

प्रकृति + प्रत्यय

For verbs the प्रकृति is called धातु and for nouns it is called प्रातिपदिकम्

Verb forms exist for three numbers - singular, dual, plural - and for three persons - first (उत्तम पुरुष), second (मध्यम पुरुष) and third (प्रथम पुरुष)

When used in active voice (कर्मणि प्रयोग) verbs can be conjugated in one of two forms - परस्मैपदि or आत्मनेपदि. Some verbs can use both forms (उभयपदि). In passive voide (भावे प्रयोग) all verbs take आत्मनेपदि form.

There are 18 प्रत्यय for verbs. The first 9 are for परस्मैपदि forms and the second 9 are for the आत्मनेपदि forms.

The verb roots (धातु) are catagorized into 10 गण (groups). Of these, groups 1, 4, 6 and 10 form a related group.

List of all गण

Verb Conjugation

वद् is a धातु that means to speak. It belongs to the first गण (भ्वादिः). For these verbs a विकरण is placed between the धातु and the प्रत्यय during conjugation. For भ्वादिः verbs the विकरण is अ/आ.

The third person (प्रथम पुरुष) singular (एकवचन) form of वद् is forme this way:

वद् + अ + तिप् = वदति (he/she speaks)

The प् in तिप् is dropped.

In गण 1, 4, 6, and 10 the विकरण is lengthened to आ for the terminations in उत्तम पुरुष

So for present tense (कर्तरि प्रयोग), sigular (एकवचन), first person (उत्तम पुरुष)

वद् + आ + मिप् = वदामि

पठति - लट्

अपठत् - लङ्

पपाठ - लिट्

अपाठीत - लुङ्

पठिष्यति - लृट्

पठिता - लुट्

पठतु - लोट्

पठेत् - लिङ्

अपठिष्यत - लृङ्

पठाति - लेट्

Nouns, Pronouns, and adjectives

Sanskrit nominals (nouns, pronouns, and adjectives) can be one of 8 cases (विभक्ति). These forms are called declensions. They are used to express what is expressed using prepositions in English. Example - with, by, to, for, from, of, in etc. However, there will not be an exact equivalence between the two languages. In English the Sanskrit declensions are called: nominative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive, locative, and vocative.

Sanskrit nominals have three numbers - singular, dual, and plural. They also have three genders - masculine, feminine, and neuter. The gender is a word is unpredictable and has little semantic significance.

There are two types of nouns that end in अ - masculine (e.g. राम) and neuter (e.g. फलम)

Verbs in English are either transitive or intransitive. Transitive verbs use a direct object.

We need a large bag.

In the above sentence need is a verb that takes the direct object "large bag". If "large bag" is removed then the sentence is incomplete.

In the below sentence ran is an intransitive verb. It does not need any objects to be complete. The words "around the house" only describe where the boy ran.

The boy ran around the house.

Even if the object is removed "The boy ran." is a complete sentence.

Kridantas

These notes are from the Vyoma Pathasala Kridanta lessons by Dr. Sowmya Krishnapur.

• Lesson 1
• Lesson 2
• Lesson 3

Lesson 1

Context

From the first lesson.

Generally all words (पदम्) are a combination of two components पदम् = प्रकृतिः + प्रत्ययः. Where प्रकृतिः is the root word and प्रत्ययः is the suffix. Both components have their own meanings.

Example: संस्कृतम् = संस्कृत + सुँ

Generally we understand sentences (वाक्य) and words (पद). But to go into a पद we need to know grammar (व्याकरणम्). It is व्याकरण that makes these divisions of प्रकृति and प्रत्यय.

Now संस्कृत can also be separated into two प्रकृति and प्रत्यय.

संस्कृत = सम् सुँ + कृत सुँ

The word कृत can be further divided कृत = कृ + क्त

Generally a पदम् is not just simply one combination of प्रकृति and प्रत्यय. Quite often the प्रकृति can be divided further and further until we get to indivisible components.

Another example: वैदेह्याः (from Vaidehi or Vaidehi's - i.e. 6th and 7th विभक्ति)

वैदेह्याः = वैदेही + ङस्

वैदेही = वैदेह + ङीप्

वैदेह = विदेह + अण्

विदेह = वि सुँ + देह ङसिँ

देह = दिह् अच्

So essentially the word वैदेह्याः is formed using two प्रकृतिः - वि and दिह् and joining them with many प्रत्ययः. Note: I think वि is उपसर्ग. Not sure if that is also a प्रकृतिः.

Generally Sanskrit व्याकरण ज्ञानम् is प्रकृति प्रत्यय ज्ञानम्. The derivation of पदम् from प्रकृति and प्रत्यय is called निष्पत्ति.

There are only two kinds of words in Sanskrit:

1. तिङन्तम् (aka क्रिया पदम्)
2. सुबन्तम्

The teacher says "Any word we see in Sanskrit is one of these. Anything is 100% covered as one of these." अव्ययानि अपि सुबन्तानि (avyayas are all subanthas).

तिङन्ते धातुः प्रकृतिः तिङ् इति प्रत्ययः अथेव तिङन्तम्। यस्य अन्ते तिङ् प्रत्ययः अस्ति तत् पदम् तिङन्तम् इत्युच्यते।

तिङन्तानि - पठति, पठिष्यति, पठतु etc

सुबन्ते प्रातिपदिकम् प्रकृतिः सुप् इति प्रत्ययः। सुप् अन्ते यस्य तत् सुबन्तम्। अतः सुबन्तम् नाम नाम पदम्। Subanthas are nouns (adjectives, adverbs also I think).

सुबन्तानि - रामः, रामौ, रामाः etc

तिङन्तम् - Verbal forms. It's प्रकृति for this form is called धातु.

सुबन्तम् - Noun forms. It's प्रकृति for this form is called प्रातिपदिकम्।

अतः धातोः तिङ् प्रत्ययस्य योजनेन तिङन्तम् भवति। प्रातिपदिकात् सुप् प्रत्ययस्य योजनेन सुबन्तम् भवति।

धातु examples पठ्, लिख्, वन्द्, नृत् and तिङन्तानि are - पठति, लिखति, वन्दते, नृत्यति

किन्तु धातुः त्रिविधः भवति -

1. केवलधातुः - normal simple धातवः like पठ्, लिख्, वन्द्, नृत्। एते केवल धातवः द्विसहस्रं सन्ति (२०००)। धातुपाठे पठिताः २००० धातवः। These are the major root forms of संस्कृतम्. संस्कृते प्रायः सर्वेशाम् अपि शब्दानाम् पदानाम् केवलधातुः एव मूलम्।
2. सनाद्यन्तधातुः - चिकीर्ष ति = चिकीर्षति। चिकीर्षति अर्थात् कर्तुम् इच्छति (he wishes to do something). In Sanskrit single words usually cover things like "wishes to read", "wishes to write", "wishes to..." etc. Now चिकीर्षति is not in the list of 2000 केवलधातवः. It is a derived धातु. It can be divided into प्रकृति + प्रत्यय. यः केवल धातुः अस्ति तस्मात् धातोः केचन प्रत्ययाः योज्यन्ते। To the original Dhatus we add some pratyaya's called सनादि। तेषाम् योजनेन पुनः धातु भवति। सनाद्यन्तधातुः = केवलधातुः + णिच्/सन्/यङ्.... Examples: पाठयति, गमयति, नर्तयाति (these are all verbs that show making someone else do the action). These dhatus are formed using णिच् प्रत्यय. Another set - चिकीर्षति (wishes to see), पिपठिष्ति (wishes to read), जिगमिष्ति (wants to go) are formed using सन् प्रत्यय. Yet another set - पुनः पुनः पठति इत्यर्थे पापठयते, पुनः पुनः वन्दते इत्यर्थे वावन्दते - these are formed using यङ् प्रत्यय. There are a series of pratyayas that are used to derive a dhatu from dhatu.
3. नामधातुः - नामपदात् धातुः। From a noun we get a verb using some pratyayas. पुत्रीय ति = पुत्रीयति (he who wants to have a son/child). सुबन्तम् + सनादि प्रत्यय (काच्/काम्यच्...).

सुबन्तम् are a combination of two components - प्रातिपदिकम् + सुप्

1. केवलप्रातिपदिकम् - Example: डित्थ + सु = डित्थः. Now डित्थ cannot be broken further. It is a name that does not mean anything. If it is a meaningful name it can be further divided. अव्युत्पन्नानि शब्दस्वरूपाणि - those केवलप्रातिपदिकम् which cannot be further divided. Unlike केवलधातुः there is no list of these words. They are very few.

2. कृदन्तम् - It is a kind of nominal stem. E.g. राम + सु = रामः। धातोः कृत् प्रत्ययस्य योजनेन कृदन्तं भवति।

3. तद्धितान्तम् - Example: दाशरथि + सु = दाशरथिः। तद्धितान्तम् कथं भवति? दशरथ इति सुबन्तम् अस्ति तस्मात् तद्धित इति प्रत्यय भवति तदा प्रातिपदिकम् भवति। तद्धितान्तम् are words that are formed by adding तद्धित प्रत्यय to subanthas. You already have a noun (सुबन्तम्) and add this प्रत्यय to form another noun. Examples: कौन्तेय (from कन्तेः), धनवान् (from धनम्->धनवत्->धनवान्), जनता (from जनानाम्)

4. समासः - Example: सीतापति सु = सीतापतिः. द्वयोः सुबन्तयोः योजनेन समासः भवति। Samasa kind of प्रातिपदिक is derived by joining two subanthas. गज + आनन = गजानन, राज्ञः + पुत्रः = राजपुत्रः, राधा + कृष्णः = राधाकृष्णौ

Summary so far: The diagram below (concisely and excellently) summarizes the lecture so far.

Words in Sanskrit are of two kinds - तिङन्तम् and सुबन्तम्। धातुः तिङन्तस्य मूलम्। Dhatu is the root of thingantham. सुबन्तस्य प्रकृतिः प्रातिपदिकम। The root of a subantham is prathipadhikam.

धातोः तिङ् प्रतययस्य योजनेन तिङन्तम् भवति। प्रातिपदिकात् सुप् प्रत्ययस्य योजनेन सुबन्तम् भवति। Attaching a thing-pratyaya to a dhatu makes it a thingantham. Attaching a sup-pratyaya to a pratipadikam makes it a subantham. These are the two main words in Sanskrit - verb forms and noun forms.

धातोः कृत् प्रतययस्य योजनेन प्रातिपदिकम् भवति। Adding a krit pratyaya converts a dhatu to a pratipadhikam. A dhatu can be converted to another dhatu by adding a sanadhi pratyaya. सुबन्तात् सनादि प्रत्यय योजनेन अपि धातुः भवति। Subantha can be converted to dhatu by adding a sanadhi pratyaya. सुबन्तात् प्रातिपदिकम् भवति तद्धित प्रत्यय योजनेन। ़From subantha adding thadhita pratyaya will make it pratipathikam. Samasa will convert multiple (two or more) to a prathipadhikam.

In the above diagram the red lines achieve inter-conversion. One cannot convert subanta directly to tinganta. You have to first make it a dhatu. Similarly, you can convert a subanta to a pratipadika and then back to subanta to get a new word. A dhatu can be converted to another dhatu using a snadaya pratyaya.

The above covers all words in Sanskrit. Knowing Sanskrit is knowing all the above. There are other things like Sandhi etc but they are just changing the letters. Of the above there are three steps which are very basic: dhatu -> pratipadikam, dhatu -> tingantam and pratipadikam->subantam

This Kridanta lesson series is about converting dhatu -> pratipadikam by adding krt pratyaya (कृत्). This conversion will give 95% of pratipadikas - just an estimate. There is another view - सर्वम् नाम् धातिजमाः - all nouns are from dhatus.

Within कृत् प्रत्ययाः there are two categories. One is the pratyayas directly given by Panini which we call कृत् प्रत्यय. Panini specifically says this is the dhatu and you add this krit pratyaya and you get this pratipadika. There are also another set of pratyayas called उणादि प्रत्यय. They are also added to dhatus to get pratipadikas. Example: गौः is derived from गम् धातु। गच्छति इति गौः। Derived from गम् + डोस्. Such pratyayas (like डोस्) are called उणादि। Is गो उणादि or डोस्? Later the teacher says गो is उणादि.

There are two views regarding उणादि -

1. we accept the derivation of उणादि from dhatu then 100%, or at least 99% of pratipadikas will be derived from dhatus.
2. those that consider उणादि as something that cannot be split further - meaning they take गो as something that cannot be divided - say that there is a set of केवल प्रातिपतिकः that cannot be split further. Most words come from dhatus and a smaller set come from kevala pratipadikam.

Kridantas are always pratipadikas. We cannot use kridantas directly because pratipadikas cannot be used in sentences. They have to be converted to subanta by adding a सुप् pratyaya to form a padam.

कृदन्ताः

• कृत् इति प्रत्ययः।
• कृत् अन्ते यस्य सः कृदन्तः।
• कृत् प्रत्ययाः धातुभ्यः विहिताः¹।
• कृदन्ताः प्रातिपदिकसंज्ञकाः²।
• कृदन्तेभ्यः सुप्-प्रत्ययस्य योजनेन सुबन्ताः भवन्ति।

¹विहिताः = ordained, supplied, made   ²संज्ञका = named, termed

There are ~140 कृत् प्रत्ययाः in Ashtadyayi. भिन्नेषु अर्थेषु भवन्ति। These pratyayas are added in specific meanings.

Below are examples of what कृत् pratyayas do and how they change meaning. You dont have to remember all of this. The examples are not comprehensive. Only a sample for understanding.

Example 1 : कर्ता (the one who does action): पाचकः, वक्ता, गतवान्

धातवः कृयाम् बोधयति। A dhatu is something that tells you an action. यदा कृत् प्रत्ययः योज्यते तदा कर्ता भवति। पच् धातु (cooking) -> पाचकः (यः पाक कार्यं करोति सः। The one who does cooking.)

यः वदते सः वक्ता। यः गच्छति - भूत कालि गमन कार्यं कृतवान् - सः गतवान्। All these words refer to the person who performed the action. We get that meaning because of the pratyaya.

पच् + अक = पाचकः

Example 2: कर्म the object of action - पठितः, खाद्यम्

The word पठित (पठितः, पठिता, पठितम्) says what was read (not who read).

किम् पठितम्? (What was read?) कृदन्ताः पठिताः। व्याकरणम् पठितम्।

पठित्वान् is the person who did the action of reading whereas पठित refers to the object. The change in meaning is because of the pratyaya.

Example 3: भावः (क्रिया) action - कृतिः, गतिः, बुभुक्षा

Pratyayas can be used to convert a dhatu to give you the meaning of कर्ता (does), कर्म (object) and also क्रिया (the action).

कृतिः = doing   गतिः = going   बुभुक्षा = to desire to eat

Example 4: क्रियाणाम् परस्परसम्बन्धः - the inter-relationship between क्रिया

कृत्वा = having done something you move on to another क्रिया

कर्तुम् = gives the purpose कर्तुम गच्छति (goes for doing)

Example 5: पौनः पुन्यम्

कारं कारम् = doing it again and again

दर्शं दर्शम् = seeing again and again

Kridantas are nouns that still have a portion of an action. Not all krit pratyayas are added to all dhatus. Some are general and applied to all dhatus and some are applied to specific dhatus.

These are the major pratyayas we will be studying in the course. We will study about 25 that are common and important. Most of these are general and can be applied to all dhatus.

प्रत्ययः १ - ल्युट् (अन)

ल्युट् इति प्रत्ययः रूपेतु अन इति श्रुयते।

Here are some example usages of this प्रत्यय

All the words in red color are kridantas. Specifically they are ल्यटन्ताः or words ending in ल्युट्.

पूर्वं रामतपोवनादिगमनं हत्वा मृगं काञ्चनम्
वैदेहीहरणं जटायुमरणं सुग्रीवसम्भाषणम्।
वालीनिग्रहणं समुद्रतरणं लङ्कापुरीदाहनं
पश्चाद्रावणकुम्भकर्णहननम् एतद्धि रामायणम्॥ Listen here

दाहनम् - to make something burn

करणं मधुरं तरणं मधुरं हरणं मधुरं रमणं मधुरम्।
वमितं मधुरं शमितं मधुरं मधुराधिपतेरखिलं मधुरम्॥ Listen here

आदौ देवकिदेविगर्भजननम् गोपीगृहेवर्धनम्
मायापूतनिजीवित अपहरणम् गोवर्धन उद्धारणम्।
कंसच्छेदनकौरवादि (छेदनम्) हननम् कुन्तीसुत आपालनम्
एतद्भागवतं पुराणकथितं श्रीकृष्णलिलामृतम्॥ Listen here

Valmiki Ramayana third sarga has a lot of ल्युट् (अन) kridantas.

Why are the pratyayas named the way they are? Pannini tries to add some identifying letters into each pratyaya. So the pratyaya will have its own letters and some other letters for identification. They help us in doing many things. That is not strictly in the purview of this class. Can email teacher (sowmya dot krishnapur at gmail).

Lesson 2

Second Lesson Video

अद्य वयम ल्यट् प्रत्ययस्य रूपाणि तेषाम् प्रयोगाणाम च अभ्यासम् कुर्मः।

Recap of previous lesson:

What all things can krit pratyayas convey meaning of - कर्ता (doer), कर्म (object), करणम् (the instrument), क्रिया (the action), कालः (the tense), पौन पुन्यम् (repeatedy doing something), विधिः (the injunction to do something) and many more.

ल्युट् प्रत्ययः गमनम्, पठनम्, जननम्, मरणम्, तरणम्, करणम्...

यत्र यत्र अयं प्रत्ययः भवति तत्र अन्ते अनम् अथवा अणम् इति श्रूयते। अयं भावार्थकः प्रत्ययः इत्युच्छते अर्थात क्रियां बोधयति। Note that the above examples are subantas the kridantas are like गमन, पठन etc.

This pratyaya is a general pratyaya which is used in the sense of action. The easy way of identifying this pratyaya is by looking at the अनम्/अणम् at the end of it. But not everywhere you see a अनम्/अणम् that is a ल्युट् प्रत्यय.

षोडशोपचार-पूजायाः अङ्गानि - यतः भगवतः पूजा क्रियते तत्र षोडश-अङ्गानि भवति। When we are worshipping the lord we have 16 steps. They are all different actions. किम् किम् भवति षोडशोपचारे -

1. ध्यानम् - we pray to the deity
2. आवाहनम् - we bring the deity into the idol or kalasha
3. आसनम् - sitting. आसनप्रदानम् we are giving him a seat
4. पाद्यप्रदानम् - पादस्य क्षालनार्थं जलम्
5. अर्घ्यप्रदानम् - अर्घ्यम् is हस्त प्रक्षालनार्थं जलम् प्रदानम्
6. आचमनीयप्रदानम् - पातुम जलम् आचमनीयमित्युच्छते
7. स्नानम्
8. वस्त्रधारणम्
9. यज्ञोपवीतधारणम्
10. गन्धलेपनम् - लिपनम् is to anoint. गन्ध is fragrant
11. पुष्पार्चनम् - पुष्पैः अर्चनम् (worshipping with flowers)
12. धूपाराधनम् - worshipping (आराधनम्) with धूपा
13. दीपदर्शनम् - showing deepam
14. निवेदनम् - giving नैवेद्यम् (action of offering food)
15. नीराजनम् - aarati
16. प्रार्थनम् - praying

1-6 above are kridantas but a different kind. After 6 are ल्यट् kridantas.

कुत्र अनम्? कुत्र अणम्?

णत्वं कुत्र भवति? In grammatiचal parlance this is called णत्व. Here is a general rule that works most of the time-

नकारात् पूर्वम् -

• रेफः/ ऋकारः / षकारः अस्ति चेत् णत्वम् भवति। Example: In तरनम् there is र् before न्। In this rule you dont have to worry if there are any स्वाराः (vowels) in betwee. Swaras will not obstruct णत्व. That word becomes तरणम्. Similarly पेषनम् becomes पेषणम्

• Second rule: If there is a consonent between the रेफः/ ऋकारः / षकारः and नकार. Examples: क्रयनम्, बृंहनम्, क्षेपनम् - If the व्यञ्जनानि (consonants) are one of कवर्ग-पवर्ग-ह्-य्-व्-र् then णत्वम् happens. All three examples qualify and they become क्रयणम्, बृंहणम्, and क्षेपणम्

• If there are other consonants between रेफः/ ऋकारः / षकारः and नकार then णत्व does not happen. Examples: ग्रथनम्, अर्चनम्, गृञ्जनम्, क्षालनम्, रटनम्, क्रीडनम्, मूर्च्छनम्, क्रोशनम्

The above is the most general rule for णत्व. There are other rules also. This rule holds for simple cases.

वृक्षेन / वृक्षेण ? वृक्षेण

ऋृषबेन / ऋृषबेण ? ऋृषबेन

Both above are not ending in अनम् so this rule does not apply. A different rule applies. See Sandhi notes "Word Internal Sandhi rule".

ल्युट्-प्रत्यत्यान्तस्य रूपाणि १

How do we get the forms of ल्युट् प्रत्यय from the dhatu? For most dhatus adding अन् will give a ल्युट् प्रत्यय.

These words only give क्रिया and there is no reference to any काला.

गमनम् अस्ति। - Present tense

गमनम् भविष्यति - Will go - Future tense

गमनम् आसीत् - Was going. - Past tense.

Some krit pratyayas do convey tense. E.g. गतवान्. This ल्युट् pratyaya does not convey tense.

ल्युट्-प्रत्यत्यान्तस्य रूपाणि २

If the words ends in इकारान्ताः/ईकारान्ताः we add अयनम्

If the words ends in उकारान्ताः/ऊकारान्ताः we add अवनम्

ल्युट् प्रत्यत्यान्तस्य रूपाणि - ३

उपान्त्ये - last but one letter

If the ह्रस्वः (small vowel) इकारः or उकारः is the last but one letter then

• इ becomes ए
• उ becomes ओ

Note: Short vowel is ह्रस्वम् and long vowel is धीर्गम्

1. फलानां त्रोटनम्।
2. यानस्य नोदनम्।

Question from student: Are words that are formed by using ल्युट् all नपुंसकलिंग? Answer is YES.

ल्युट् प्रत्यत्यान्तस्य रूपाणि - ४

Video Section

• यदि ऋकारः अन्ते अस्ति तर्हि अन् इति भवति (also apply णत्वम्)
• यदि ऋकारः उपान्त्यः अस्ति तर्हि अर् इति भवति

विषेषः - मृज् - मार्जनम् (cleaning) is an exception to the above.

आवृत् - आवर्तनम् (revise)

One last form

If the धातु is ए/ऐ/ओ/औ-कारान्तः then ए/ऐ becomes अकारान्तः

द्यै - द्यानम्

गै - गानम्

Sloka

Bhakti is of nine kinds

श्रवणं कीर्तनं विष्णोः स्मरणं पादसेवनम्।
अर्चनं वन्दनं दास्यं सख्यम् आत्मनिवेदनम्॥

दासस्य भावः दास्यम् - तद्धितान्त कृदन्तः
सख्यु भावः सख्यम् - तद्धितान्त कृदन्तः

Summary

Student question: Why do we call it ल्युट् when the sound added is अन्/अण्?

The लकार and टकार in ल्युट् has its own purposes of modifying the swara etc of the dhatu. Why we get अन् is because where every यु occurs it is replaced by अन् as per a Panini sutra called युवोरनाकौ.

Lesson 3

Video

कृदन्ताः - The term used to refer to a group of प्रत्ययाः. It is not a प्रत्यय by it self but refers to a group.

कृत् is a name for a set of pratyayas. There are about 140 pratyayas that fall under this group. They are always added to dhatus.

Start at 4:28

Using Vibhaktis

The nominative case (प्रथम विभक्ति) is used then the noun is the subject of a sentence in active voice.

द्वितीया विभक्ति (accusative case)

This form is used for the following:

1. To indicate the direct object of a transitive verb
2. To indicate the object of verbs for actions such as "going", which are transitive in Sanskrit
3. With the word धिक् ("curse upon X") and with the prepositions below

तृतीया विभक्ति aka Instrumental Case

To indicate the instrument of an action. Example: सः पात्रेण जलं बिबति। He drinks water from a vessel. नरः फलेन तुष्यति। In Sanskrit, the instrument of an action is called करणम्.

Example:

छात्रः लेखन्या पाठं लिखति।

लिखति - क्रियापदम्

कः लिखति - छात्रः - कर्ता - प्रथमा बिभक्तिः

किम् लिखति - पाठं - कर्मपदम् - द्वितीया विभक्ति

केन लिखति - लेखन्या - करणम् - तृतीया विभक्ति

To indicate the person or thing accompanying an action where the association is indicated by prepositions like सह (with). Example: दासेन सः नृपः गच्छति। The king goes accompanied by the servant.

The preposition is optional. So दासेन नृपः गच्छति। Is also correct usage.

To indicate cause or reason दुःखेन ग्रामं त्यजामि। I abandon the village out of sorrow/misery.

With विना and अलम्. Example: जलेन विना कमलं नश्यति। A lotus perishes without water. अलं दुःखेन। Enough with misery.

To indicate the agent of a passive verb.

चतुर्थी विभक्ति aka Dative Case

तृतीया विभक्ति is used for the following

1. To indicate the indirect object of the verbs meaning "to give", "to show", "to send" etc.

Example: नृपो दासाय कनकं यच्छति। The king gioves gold to the student.

2. With verbs meaning "to be angry with", "to long for", "to please"/"to like" etc.

Examples:

• जनकः पुत्राय कुप्यति। The father is angry with the son.
• जनकः पुत्राय स्पृहयति। The father longs for the son.
• कुसुमानि नृपाय रोचन्ते। Flowers please the king.

3. With verbs of movement. Example: दासो ग्रामाय गच्छति।

In this case दासो ग्रामं गच्छति। Is also correct (i.e. द्वितीया विभक्ति)

4. To express the purpose of an action. Example: सः सुखाय वनं गच्छति। He goes to the forest for the same of happiness.

5. With the particles नमः (salutation to) and स्वस्ति (hail to). Example: नृपाय नमः/स्वस्ति।

6. With the particle अलं. Example: अलं मल्लो मल्लाय। Wrestler is able to face (another) wrestler.

पञ्चमी विभक्ति aka Ablative Case

This case is used to indicate the point from where the action begins - नरो ग्रामात् वनं गच्छति। The man goes from the village to the forest.

It is used to express cause or reason: नृपो दासं दुःखात् तुदति। On account of misery the king strikes the servant. The तृतीया विभक्ति (instrumental case) can also be used for this purpose.

It is used with the prepositions प्राक् (before, to the east of), पूर्वम् (before), अनन्तरम् (after), आ (until, since), बहिः (outside), ऋते (except) and (विना). The first four prepositions are used in both temporal and spatial sense.

षष्ठी विभक्ति aka Genitive Case

To indicate the equivalent of possesive case in English. अहं रामस्य दासं अस्मि। I am Rama's servant.

The equivalent of "have" in English. The king has gold. नृपस्य कनकं भवति।

With the prepositions - उपरी (above), अधः (below), पुरतः (in front of), पश्चात् (behind), परतः (beyond), अग्रे, समक्ष् (in the presence of), कृते (for the sake of), and समीपम् (in the vicinity of)

सप्तमी विभक्ति aka Locative Case

This is used to indicate the place or time where the action takes place. Ex. in, at, on, upon, above, among, etc. फलम् कूपे पतति। The fruit falls in the well.

For expressions like "concerning", "in the matter of" etc. पुत्रे जनकः तुष्यति। The father is happy about the son.

To indicate the object of emotions and feelings. Example जनकः पुत्रे स्निह्यति। The father feels affection for the son.

सम्बोधन aka Vocative Case

When addressing. हे नृपे। O King!

Active and Passive Voice

There are two types of passive voice in Sanskrit - Transitive Passive (कर्मणि) and Intransitive Passive (भावे).

Transitive Passive (कर्मणि)

In transitive passive sentences the object of the transitive action is the syntactic focus and not the agent of the action. The verb undergo modification as if it were a 4th conjugation (गण) आत्मनेपद. The verb agrees with the object in number (वचन) and person (पुरुष). The object of a passive action should be in प्रथमा विभक्ति (nominative case) and the agent should be in तृतीया विभक्ति (instrumental case).

Active: रामो गृहम् गच्छति। Rama goes home.

Passive: रामेण गृहम् गम्यते। (Note that गृहम् here is प्रथमा विभक्ति) Home is gone to by Rama.

Active: रामो भूमिम् खनति। Rama digs the ground.

Passive: रामेण भूमिः खन्यते। The ground is dug by Rama.

Active: अहं पुत्रान् पश्यामि। I see (my) sons.

Passive: मया पुत्राः दृश्यन्ते। (My) sons are seen by me.

Active: त्वम् भार्याम् स्मरसि। You remember your wife

Passive: त्वया भार्या स्मर्यते। (Your) wife is remembered by you.

Passive sentences can of course be of different types. Examples of present, past imperfect, imperfect and potential sentences in passive voice.

Present (लट् लकार):

Active: त्वम् भूमिम् खनसि। You dig the ground.

Passive: त्वया भूमिः खन्यते। The ground is dug up by you.

Past Imperfect (लङ् लकार, अनद्यतन भूत काल):

Active: त्वम् भूमिम् अखनः। You dug up the ground.

Passive: त्वया भूमिः अखन्यत। The ground was dug up by you.

Imperative (लोट् लकार):

Active: त्वम् भूमिम् खन। You there, dig up the ground. (Order)

Passive: त्वया भूमिः खन्यताम्। The ground must be dug up by you.

Potential (लिङ् लकार):

Active: त्वम् भूमिम् खनेः। You should dig up the ground.

Passive: त्वया भूमिः खन्येत। The ground should be dug up by you.

Intransitive Passive (भावे)

One can have intransitive passive construction for any intransitive verb, and for transitive verbs used without objects. In this type of sentence there is no object. The focus of the sentence is on the action (भाव). In these sentences the agents takes the instrumental case (तृतीया) and the passive verb is always in 3rd person singular.

Active: त्वम् गच्छसि। You go.

भावे: त्वया गम्यते। Going is done by you.

Active: देवाः खादन्ति। Gods eat.

भावे : देवैः खाद्यते। The eating is done by Gods.

Active: अहम् अपतम्। I fell.

भावे : मया अपत्यत। Falling was done by me.

Active: यूयम् गच्छत।

भावे : युष्माभिः गम्यताम्।

Passive constructions in the context of gerunds and infinitives (क्त्वा and तुमुन प्रत्यय)

As long as the gerund/infinitive has the same object and agent as the main finite verb, the case of the object and the agent is determined by the voice of the main verb.

Active: पक्त्वा रामः ओदनं खादति। Having cooked (it), Rama eats rice.

Passive: पक्त्वा ओदनः खाद्यते रामेण। Having (been) cooked, the rice is eaten by Rama.

Active: रामः खादितुम् ओदनम् पचति। Rama cooks rice in order to eat it.

Passive: खादितुम ओदनः पच्यते रामेण। Rice has been cooked byy Rama to (be) eaten.

However, if the gerund/infinitive has a different object, then that object will always be expressed in accusative case (द्वितीया विभक्ति)

Active: गृहं गत्वा रामः ओदनं खादति। Having gone home, Rama eats rice.

Passive: गृहं गत्वा रामेण ओदनः खाद्यते। Having gone home, rice is eaten by Rama.

Active: रामः ओदनं खादितुम् गृहं गच्छति। Rama goes home to eat rice.

Passive: ओदनं खादितुम रामेण गृहं गम्यते। Home is gone to by Rama, to eat rice.

Terminology

वाक्यम् - sentence

पदम् - word

वर्णः - sounds (phenomes?)

अक्षरम - sounds

सन्धिः - when two वर्णः are joined/combined

समासम् - when two पदम् are joined/combined

In Sanskrit grammar there is an entire branch devoted to the study of the joining of two वर्णः and that is called सन्धिः. Example: नमस्ते, कोपि etc

Similarly there is a branch devoted to the study of the joining of two पदम् called समासम्. Example: देवालय, वृक्षमूलम, जगत्पति, करपत्रम् etc

प्रातिपदिकम् - base word/root of (सुबन्तम्) nouns, adjectives and other non-verbs

सुबन्तम् - nouns, adjectives and other non-verbs (नाम पदम्)

तिङन्तम् - verbs (क्रिया पदम)

कृदन्तम् - The term used to refer to a group of प्रत्ययाः. It is not a प्रत्यय by it self but refers to a group.

Misc stuff (not terminology)

Difference between अर्धम् and अर्धः is that अर्धम् is exactly half and अर्धः is a piece.

भो नवको मक्षिकः

त्वं दूरात् आगतः

केवलम्मृत्यवे

टाश्!!!

- हैकुः मया कृतम्

Sayings

अर्ध मात्रा लाधवेन पुत्रोत्सवम् मन्यन्ते वैयाकरणाः

Grammarians by saving an half a matra will get joy of getting a baby.

सूत्रलक्षणम्

अल्पाक्षरमसन्दिग्धं सारवद्विश्वतोमुखम्।

अस्तोभमनवद्यं च सूत्रं सूत्रविदो विदुः॥

The characteristics (or properties) of a Sutra. Only something with these six characteristics can be a Sutram.

1. अल्याक्षरम् = सङ्क्षिप्तम् (brevity)
2. असन्दिग्धम् = सन्देहरहितम् (lucid, clear, without any doubt)
3. सारवत् = बहुगभीरम् (deep and meaningful)
4. विश्वतोमुखम् = विस्तृतोपयोगि (usable widely or in many contexts)
5. अस्तोभम् = व्यर्थांशरहितम् (only the essential content)
6. अनवद्यम् = निर्दोषम् (without errors)

Resources

The best way to learn Sanskrit is to learn from a good teacher following whatever text they prescribe. But that may not be possible for all. Here are a list of books and resources I have found useful:

Courses for beginners:

• Samskrita Bharathi an NGO founded by Shri. Chamu Shastry has distance learning courses. The courses are based on their own books. Recommended if you are motivated, can already read Devnagri script, and can pronounce Sanskrit correctly.
• Vyoma Labs - Many free and paid courses. The people in this organization are experts in the language and have experience teaching.
• CBSE NCERT Sanskrit books - used to teach school children in India. They are reasonably good.
• Madras Sanskrit College Online Course
• Sanskrit through self-study - IITM
• Samskrita Shikshanam YouTube Playlist
• Samskrita Bharati - Pravesha Course YouTube playlist
• Learn Sanskrit

Magazines etc.:

• Sanskrit OTT - Movies and short films
• सम्भाषणसन्देशः - Sanskrit Magazine
• सुधर्मा संस्कृतदिनपत्रिका - Sudharma Sanskrit Newspaper
• Ambuda - Sanskrit library project
• Samvardhini

Books:

• कृदन्तरूपनन्दिनी

Dictionaries:

• learnsanskrit.cc
• kosha.sanskrit.today

Useful links:

• Sandhi in Sanskrit
• Sanskrit Stories by Madras Sanskrit College
• Ashtadhyayi
  • NCT Acharya Youtube Playlist
  • Learn to chant Ashtadhyayi YouTube Playlist by Vyoma Labs
  • Ashtadhyayi Sutra SVBP
• Laghu Siddhanta Kaumudi Part 1 - Youtube Playlist by Vyoma Labs
• Ten day spoken Sanskrit classes by Prof B Mahadevan
• Learn Sanskrit through Sanskrit (Rashtriya Sanskrit Sansthan)
• Samskritasri Pathamala Smt. Deepa Rangarajan: The Pathamala Series has a very unique and judicious mix of Vyakarana (Grammer), Kavya (Litrature), Bhakti through Stotras and Bhagavat-katha and essays on various topics. This is a series of Youtube videos from the Vyoma Labs Youtube channel.
• High School Sanskrit Grammar Made Easy A Youtube playlist from our favorite Vyoma Labs.
• Learn to Chant Amarakosha - Vyoma Labs
• Master Basic Shabdarupas and Dhaturupas - Vyoma Labs
• Sanskrit Document Collection
• Learn to Chant Narayaneeyam - Youtube Playlist
• Sanskrit Bhasha Bodha - YouTube Channel
• कृदन्ताः - Kridanta
• तिङन्तप्रक्रिया Tinanta-prakriya
• संस्कृत अभ्यासः

Note: Memorizing Amarakosha or Ashtadhyayi may be attempted by young learners. Older ones may not find it easy.

सुभाषितम्

प्राणस्य बीजं सकलस्य वायुर्ध्यानं हरेः सर्वरुजां च जायः।

आहारशुद्ध्या खल दीर्घमायुः बीजं विकारस्य धियो नु मायुः॥

- नागराजस्य (12 April 2022 सुधर्मा)

The basic cause of life of every living being is air. Meditation on Lord Hari is the best medication for all diseased. Long life is attained by consuming clean food. The cause of aberration of intellect is Pitta (bile).

Srimad Bhagavad Gita

Translation by Swami Tapasyananda

Chapter 1

Sloka 31:

आहवे - in the war. आहव = war

निमित्त = omen (but in different context it can also mean sake, cause, target, reason)

येषामर्थे - for whose sake (येषाम् अर्थे)

स्यालाः = brother-in-laws